Glossary of regenerative and biodynamic terms

Aggregate stability refers to the ability of soil aggregates to resist disintegration when subjected to external forces such as rainfall or tillage. It is a measure of how well soil particles are held together and is influenced by factors such as organic matter, soil texture, and land use practices. Improving aggregate stability can promote healthy soils, reduce erosion, and improve water quality.

Reference: Doran, J.W. and Parkin, T.B., 1994. Defining and assessing soil quality. Defining soil quality for a sustainable environment, pp.3-21.

Aggregation refers to the process where soil particles bind together to form aggregates, improving soil structure, porosity, and water retention. This enhances root penetration, nutrient availability, and overall soil health.

Reference: Brady, N.C., & Weil, R.R. (2008). The Nature and Properties of Soils. Prentice Hall.

Allelopathy is when plants release chemical compounds called allelochemicals that hinder the growth of nearby plants. These compounds affect seed germination, root growth, and other physiological processes.

Reference: Rice, E.L., 1984. Allelopathy. Academic press.

Base saturation is the proportion of exchangeable cations in soil that are occupied by basic cations such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. It is expressed as a percentage of the total cation exchange capacity of the soil. Optimal base saturation levels vary with soil type and crops grown, but high base saturation can cause nutrient imbalances and reduce soil acidity.

Reference: Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R., 2016. The nature and properties of soils. Pearson Education India.

Beneficial insects include pollinators, predators, parasitoids, and soil-dwelling insects that play important roles in maintaining the health of agricultural and natural ecosystems. Promoting beneficial insects can reduce the need for synthetic pesticides and improve soil fertility.

Reference: Gurr, G.M. and Wratten, S.D., 2000. Insect conservation and islands (pp. 103-114). Springer, Dordrecht.

Biofumigation uses certain plants, known as biofumigant crops, to release natural compounds that have pesticidal properties when incorporated into soil. Biofumigation is a sustainable alternative to chemical fumigation and can help control soil-borne pests and diseases.

Reference: Kabir, Z., 2006. Biofumigation for soil-borne pest management. Crop Protection, 25(10), pp.1065-1076.

A biomass crop is a plant grown specifically for the purpose of producing organic matter that can be converted into bioenergy or other bioproducts. Biomass crops are typically fast-growing, high-yielding plants that can be grown on marginal lands. Examples of biomass crops include switchgrass, miscanthus, willow, and algae.

Reference: Lewandowski, I., Scurlock, J.M.O., Lindvall, E. and Christou, M., 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy, 25(4), pp.335-361.

Broadly, a biostimulant is a substance or microorganism that when applied to plants or the soil, stimulates existing biological & chemical processes in the plant and/or associated microbes (e.g., mycorrhizal fungi) to enhance the plants growth, yield and/or quality through improving nutrient update, nutrient use efficiency and/or tolerance to abiotic stress (e.g., heat, saline soils).

Biofertilisers are materials of biological origin, e.g., plants, seaweed, fish, land animals, etc., that contain sufficient levels of plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, etc.), in forms that are either directly absorbed by plants, or are sufficiently quickly decomposed to available forms, to cause an increase in plant growth and/or quality.

The main difference therefore is that biostimulants don't contain many nutrients, while biofertilisers do.

Reference: http://www.bhu.org.nz/future-farming-centre/information/bulletin/2016-v1/understanding-biostimulants-and-biofertilisers

Brassicas are a group of plants in the mustard family (Brassicaceae), which includes many common vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts. Brassicas are valued for their nutritional and medicinal properties, and are also used in agricultural practices such as biofumigation, cover cropping, and soil remediation.

Reference: Hansen, H., 2001. Brassica crops in sustainable agriculture. European Journal of Agronomy, 15(2), pp.99-119.

Brix is a measure of the sugar content in a liquid, typically sap or juice from plants. It is measured in degrees Brix using a refractometer, which measures the bending of light passing through a liquid. Brix is commonly used in agriculture to assess the quality and ripeness of crops such as fruits, vegetables, and forages, and can be an indicator of nutrient density and flavor.

Reference: Jones Jr, J.B., 2007. Laboratory guide for conducting soil tests and plant analysis. CRC press.

A Brix meter, also known as a refractometer, is a device used to measure the sugar content in a liquid, such as sap or juice from plants. The meter measures the refractive index of the liquid, which is affected by the amount of dissolved sugar. Brix meters are commonly used in agriculture to assess the quality and ripeness of crops such as fruits, vegetables, and forages, and can also be used to monitor the fermentation of beer and wine.

Reference: Jones Jr, J.B., 2007. Laboratory guide for conducting soil tests and plant analysis. CRC press.

Capping in soil refers to the formation of a hard crust or layer at the soil surface, typically caused by rain or irrigation water, that can inhibit water infiltration and seedling emergence. Soil capping is a common problem in soils with high clay content or poor soil structure. Techniques such as conservation tillage and cover cropping can help reduce soil capping and improve soil health.

Reference: Hudson, B.D., 1994. Soil organic matter and available water capacity. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 49(2), pp.189-194.

The carbon:nitrogen ratio (C:N ratio) is a measure of the relative proportion of carbon to nitrogen in organic matter such as soil organic matter, crop residues, and manures. The C:N ratio affects the rate of decomposition of organic matter, with higher ratios indicating slower decomposition rates. The optimal C:N ratio for soil health varies depending on factors such as soil type, climate, and management practices. A C:N ratio of around 24:1 is often cited as optimal for soil microorganisms.

Reference: Sainju, U.M., Singh, B.P., Whitehead, W.F. and Tillman, P.G., 2008. Soil carbon and nitrogen as affected by tillage and cropping systems in Alabama. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 72(3), pp.857-865.

A catch crop is a quick-growing crop planted between regular crop production periods to utilize residual soil nutrients, reduce soil erosion, and suppress weeds. Catch crops are typically planted during fallow periods, after harvest or between regular crop seasons, and are harvested or tilled under before the next regular crop is planted. Examples of catch crops include legumes, grasses, and brassicas.

Reference: Finney, D.M. and White, C.M., 2006. Catch crops: Their contribution to environmental management. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 112(3-4), pp.199-207.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) and anion exchange capacity (AEC) are measures of a soil's ability to exchange cations and anions with soil solution, respectively. CEC is the total amount of exchangeable cations that a soil can hold and is determined by the presence of negatively charged soil particles such as clays and organic matter. AEC is the equivalent measure for anions. Both CEC and AEC are important for nutrient availability and retention in soils, and can affect soil pH and buffering capacity.

Reference: Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R., 2016. The nature and properties of soils. Pearson Education India.

Chenopods are a group of plants in the family Chenopodiaceae, which includes species such as spinach, beets, and quinoa. These plants are typically found in arid and semi-arid regions and are known for their ability to tolerate drought, high salinity, and other environmental stresses. Chenopods have important ecological and economic value, providing food for both humans and livestock, and contributing to soil conservation and restoration.

Reference: Maughan, P.J., Turner, T.B. and Coleman, C.E., 2009. Chenopod grain and Salicornia. In Handbook of energy crops (pp. 253-266). Iowa State University.

Compaction in farming refers to the compression or consolidation of soil particles, resulting in reduced pore space and increased soil density. It can occur due to various factors, including machinery traffic, excessive tillage, and heavy rainfall, leading to restricted root growth, decreased water infiltration, and impaired soil health and productivity.

Reference: Horn, R., Fleige, H. and Vogeler, I., 2017. Soil compaction—A major threat in sustainable soil tillage and crop production. In Advances in agronomy (Vol. 146, pp. 351-437). Elsevier.

Conservation biocontrol is a pest management strategy that aims to enhance the effectiveness of natural enemies, such as predators and parasitoids, to control pest populations. This can be achieved by promoting habitat diversity, such as providing flowering plants for natural enemies, and reducing pesticide use, which can harm natural enemy populations. Conservation biocontrol can be used in conjunction with other pest management techniques to reduce the reliance on synthetic pesticides and promote sustainable agriculture.

Reference: Landis, D.A., Wratten, S.D. and Gurr, G.M., 2000. Habitat management to conserve natural enemies of arthropod pests in agriculture. Annual Review of Entomology, 45(1), pp.175-201.

Contaminating your future cash crop with cover crop species that are similar to your cash crop (i.e. annual clover in cover crop before a red clover seed crop) that you can’t spray out as they are too similar.

A cover crop is a non-commercial crop grown primarily to improve soil health and productivity. Cover crops are typically planted during fallow periods, after harvest or between regular crop seasons, and are not harvested for sale. They are used to protect the soil from erosion, suppress weeds, and improve soil organic matter and nutrient content. Examples of cover crops include legumes, grasses, and brassicas.

Reference: Snapp, S.S., Swinton, S.M., Labarta, R., Mutch, D., Black, J.R., Leep, R., Nyiraneza, J. and O'Neil, K., 2005. Evaluating cover crops for benefits, costs and performance within cropping system niches. Agronomy Journal, 97(1), pp.1-11.

Crop residue refers to the plant material that remains after harvesting a crop, including stalks, leaves, and other above-ground parts. It can be left on the field or used as organic matter for soil cover, erosion control, and nutrient cycling.

Reference: Sharma, S.K., et al. (2020). Management of crop residues for sustainable agriculture. In Crop Residues for Sustainable Agriculture (pp. 1-13). Springer.

Decomposition in soil refers to the breakdown of organic matter into simpler compounds by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. Decomposition is a critical process in soil ecology, releasing nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon that are essential for plant growth. The rate of decomposition is influenced by factors such as temperature, moisture, and soil pH, and can be managed through agricultural practices such as tillage, cover cropping, and organic matter amendment.

Reference: Dick, R.P., 1997. Soil enzyme activities as integrative indicators of soil health. In Methods for assessing soil quality (pp. 107-124). CRC Press.

Drilling green involves sowing seeds for cash crops directly into living cover crops without terminating the cover crops first. This method promotes soil health, reduces erosion, and enhances biodiversity.

Reference: Snapp, S.S., Swinton, S.M., Labarta, R., Mutch, D., Black, J.R., Leep, R., & O’Neil, K. (2005). Evaluating cover crops for benefits, costs and performance within cropping system niches. Agronomy Journal, 97(1), 322-332.

Erosion in farming is the loss of soil caused by water, wind, or other forces. It results from factors like rainfall intensity, poor land management, and inadequate ground cover. Erosion degrades soil and reduces fertility.

Reference: Montgomery, D.R., 2007. Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(33), pp.13268-13272.

Facilitative effects in farming denote positive interactions among organisms that promote agricultural productivity. These interactions, such as mutualistic relationships or symbiosis between plants and beneficial microbes, contribute to enhanced soil fertility and crop health.

Reference: Maestre, F.T., Callaway, R.M., Valladares, F. (2009). Facilitation in ecosystems: a bridge between ecological disciplines. Springer Science & Business Media.

False and stale seedbeds are soil management techniques used to control weeds in agricultural systems without relying on synthetic herbicides. A false seedbed is prepared by tilling the soil and allowing weed seeds to germinate, then killing them with shallow tillage or cultivation before planting the desired crop. A stale seedbed is prepared by tilling the soil several times before planting, allowing weed seeds to germinate and then killing them with tillage or a non-selective herbicide before planting the crop.

Reference: Teasdale, J.R., 1996. Contribution of cover crops to weed management in sustainable agricultural systems. Journal of Production Agriculture, 9(4), pp. 475-479.

Forbs are broad-leaved herbaceous plants that are an important component of diverse plant communities and provide essential ecosystem services, such as nutrient cycling and soil conservation. Forbs are typically adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions, and can be used in agricultural systems to improve soil health and biodiversity. Forbs have been shown to increase soil organic matter, improve soil structure, and enhance water infiltration and retention.

Reference: Liebig, M.A., Gross, J.R. and Kronberg, S.L., 2010. Monoculture perennial forb mixtures enhance ecological restoration. Ecological Engineering, 36(8), pp.1015-1022.

Full recovery refers to the time required for vegetation to restore its biomass and vitality after grazing. It allows plants to replenish energy reserves, rebuild roots, and maintain long-term health and productivity.

Reference: Holechek, J.L., Pieper, R.D., & Herbel, C.H. (2001). Range management: principles and practices. Prentice Hall.

Gas exchange in soil refers to the movement of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide between the soil and the atmosphere. This exchange is critical for soil health and productivity, as it allows for aerobic respiration by soil organisms, which releases energy and nutrients for plant growth. The rate of gas exchange is influenced by factors such as soil moisture, temperature, and aeration status, and can be managed through practices such as soil tillage and organic matter amendment.

Reference: Kramer, S.B., Reganold, J.P., Glover, J.D., Bohannan, B.J. and Mooney, H.A., 2006. Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically fertilized soils. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(12), pp.4522-4527.

Glomalin is a glycoprotein produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) that forms a key component of soil organic matter. Glomalin is involved in stabilizing soil aggregates, which can improve soil structure, water-holding capacity, and nutrient availability. Glomalin can also sequester carbon in the soil, making it an important factor in the global carbon cycle. Glomalin has been found to be particularly abundant in grassland and forest soils.

Reference: Wright, S.F. and Upadhyaya, A., 1998. A survey of soils for aggregate stability and glomalin, a glycoprotein produced by hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Plant and Soil, 198(1), pp.97-107.

Green manure is a cover crop that is grown specifically to be incorporated into the soil to improve soil fertility and health. Green manure crops are typically legumes or grasses that are grown during fallow periods, after harvest or between regular crop seasons, and are not harvested for sale. Incorporating green manure into the soil can increase organic matter content, improve soil structure, and enhance nutrient cycling. Green manure is often used in regenerative agriculture as a sustainable alternative to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.

Reference: Reeves, D.W. and Price, A.J., 2006. Using winter cover crops to improve soil and water quality. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 37(1-2), pp.197-209.

Hot water extractable carbon (HWC) is a measure of the labile carbon fraction in soil, which refers to the readily decomposable organic matter that can provide an immediate source of energy for soil microorganisms. HWC is extracted by mixing soil with hot water and measuring the amount of dissolved organic carbon. HWC is a sensitive indicator of changes in soil organic matter and can be influenced by factors such as management practices and soil texture.

Reference: Gregorich, E.G., Drury, C.F. and Baldock, J.A., 2001. Changes in soil carbon under long-term maize in monoculture and legume-based rotation. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, 81(1), pp.21-31.

Hydrophobic soil refers to soil that repels water due to a waxy coating on soil particles that inhibits the formation of stable soil aggregates. Hydrophobic soil can result from a number of factors, including soil organic matter depletion, wildfire, and certain management practices such as tillage and synthetic chemical inputs. Hydrophobic soil can lead to reduced water infiltration and increased runoff, which can exacerbate soil erosion and reduce crop productivity.

Reference: DeBano, L.F., 2000. The role of fire and soil heating on water repellency in wildland environments: a review. Journal of Hydrology, 231, pp.195-206.

A water infiltration test is a method used to measure the rate at which water enters the soil. In this test, a hole is dug in the soil and filled with water, and the time it takes for the water to infiltrate into the soil is recorded. The rate of water infiltration can provide important information about soil structure, porosity, and permeability, as well as the effects of management practices such as tillage, compaction, and organic matter amendment on soil health and productivity.

Reference: Bouma, J., 1989. Using soil survey data for quantitative land evaluation. Advances in Soil Science, 10, pp.69-115.

Inoculants are microorganisms that are introduced to soil with the aim of promoting plant growth and enhancing soil health. Inoculants can include beneficial bacteria, fungi, or other microorganisms that form symbiotic relationships with plants or contribute to nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition. Inoculants can be used in agricultural systems to improve crop yield and quality, reduce fertilizer and pesticide use, and enhance soil biodiversity and resilience.

Reference: Kloepper, J.W., Lifshitz, R. and Schroth, M.N., 1989. Pseudomonas inoculants to benefit plant production. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, 7, pp.201-223.

Intercropping is an agricultural practice in which two or more crops are grown simultaneously in the same field. Intercropping can provide several benefits, including increased crop yield, enhanced soil health, and pest and disease management. By combining crops with different growth habits and nutrient requirements, intercropping can improve resource use efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. Common examples of intercropping include growing legumes with cereals, or vegetables with cover crops.

Reference: Hauggaard-Nielsen, H. and Jensen, E.S., 2005. Intercropping of cereals and grain legumes for biomass production, nutrient cycling and soil improvement in a European perspective. In Proceedings of the NJF Seminar No. 369, Horsens, Denmark (pp. 25-28).

Leaching in soil refers to the process by which water-soluble substances, such as nutrients, minerals, and organic matter, are washed out of the soil profile and transported downwards through the soil by percolating water. Leaching can have both positive and negative effects on soil and plant health. On the one hand, leaching can contribute to nutrient availability for plant growth. On the other hand, excessive leaching can lead to soil degradation, reduced soil fertility, and water pollution.

Reference: Withers, P.J.A. and Lord, E.I., 2002. Agricultural nutrient inputs to rivers and groundwaters in the UK: policy, environmental management and research needs. Science of the Total Environment, 282-283, pp.9-24.

Legumes are a family of plants that includes many important crops such as soybeans, peanuts, peas, lentils, and beans. Legumes are characterized by their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their root nodules. This allows legumes to enrich the soil with nitrogen, making them important in sustainable agricultural systems. Legumes are also a source of protein and other important nutrients, and are commonly used as food for both humans and livestock.

Reference: Hungria, M., Nogueira, M.A., Araujo, R.S. and Coelho, M.R.R., 2013. Soybean seed co-inoculation with Bradyrhizobium spp. and Azospirillum brasilense: a new biotechnological tool to improve yield and sustainability. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 4(07), p.1293.

Limiting factors in farming are factors or conditions that restrict or limit crop growth and productivity. These can include factors such as nutrient deficiencies, water availability, temperature extremes, pest and disease pressure, soil compaction, and inadequate sunlight. Identifying and managing these limiting factors is crucial for optimizing crop production.

Reference: Jones, H.G., 2013. Plants and microclimate: a quantitative approach to environmental plant physiology. Cambridge University Press.

A living mulch is a cover crop that is intentionally left to grow and provide a protective layer over the soil, while the main crop is grown in the same field. Living mulches are often grasses or legumes that can provide multiple benefits, such as reducing soil erosion, suppressing weeds, improving soil health, and providing additional forage for livestock. Living mulches can also reduce the need for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, making them an important component of regenerative agriculture systems.

Reference: Snapp, S.S., Swinton, S.M., Labarta, R., Mutch, D., Black, J.R., Leep, R., Nyiraneza, J. and O'Neil, K., 2005. Evaluating cover crops for benefits, costs and performance within cropping system niches. Agronomy Journal, 97(1), pp.1-11.

In regenerative farming, "living roots" refers to the presence of actively growing plant roots in the soil throughout the year. This practice aims to maintain continuous root activity, which contributes to improved soil structure, nutrient cycling, water infiltration, and microbial activity.

Reference: Smith, R.G., Gross, R. and Robertson, G.P., 2017. Nitrogen timing, not crop rotation, impacts nitrous oxide emissions in no-till corn systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 241, pp.145-154.

Macronutrients (also called major nutrients) are the essential nutrients (chemical elements) required in the largest amounts by plants and include nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulphur (S). The cut off point between the macronutrients and micronutrients is arbitrary.

Microbial soil biology refers to the study of microorganisms in soil and their interactions with each other and with the soil environment. Microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses play critical roles in soil nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, plant growth promotion, and disease suppression. The diversity and activity of microbial communities in soil are influenced by factors such as soil type, management practices, climate, and plant species. Understanding microbial soil biology is essential for developing sustainable agricultural systems that promote soil health and productivity.

Reference: Bardgett, R.D. and van der Putten, W.H., 2014. Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nature, 515(7528), pp.505-511.

Micronutrients (also called minor nutrients), are the essential nutrients (chemical elements) required in lesser amounts by plants and include chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), boron (B), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). Silicon (Si) is not essential but will increase the growth of many plants, particularly grasses. Cobalt (Co) is important to the nitrogen fixing bacteria that are symbiotic with the legumes. The cut off point between the macronutrients and micronutrients is arbitrary.

In farming, mutualistic interactions involve mutually beneficial relationships between different organisms, such as plants and beneficial microbes. These partnerships enhance nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and plant health, promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

Reference: Barea, J. M., & Azcón, R. (1987). Mycorrhizas and their significance in nodulating nitrogen-fixing plants. Nitrogen fixation by free-living microorganisms, 151-192.

Mycorrhizal fungi are a type of beneficial fungi that form mutualistic associations with plant roots. These fungi form a network of hyphae that extends into the soil, increasing the surface area available for nutrient and water uptake by the plant. In return, the plant provides the fungus with carbohydrates and other nutrients. Mycorrhizal fungi can improve plant growth and survival, enhance soil structure and stability, and increase resistance to drought and other stresses. They are found in a wide range of natural and agricultural ecosystems.

Reference: Smith, S.E. and Read, D.J., 2008. Mycorrhizal symbiosis. Academic press.

Nitrogen fixation in soil refers to the process by which certain microorganisms, such as symbiotic or free-living bacteria, convert atmospheric nitrogen gas (N2) into a biologically available form of nitrogen, such as ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-). This process is important because nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plant growth and is often limiting in many soils. Nitrogen fixation can occur through both natural and artificial means, such as through the use of leguminous cover crops or nitrogen-fixing bacteria inoculants, and plays a critical role in maintaining soil fertility and productivity.

Reference: Peoples, M.B., Herridge, D.F. and Ladha, J.K., 1995. Biological nitrogen fixation: An efficient source of nitrogen for sustainable agricultural production? Plant and Soil, 174(1-2), pp.3-28.

Nitrogen robbery in soil refers to a phenomenon in which microorganisms use up soil nitrogen that would otherwise be available for plant growth. This can occur when organic matter, such as crop residues or manure, is added to the soil, as microorganisms decompose the organic matter and compete with plants for soil nitrogen. This can result in nitrogen depletion in the soil, reduced plant growth, and decreased crop yields. Proper management practices, such as adding nitrogen fertilizer or planting cover crops, can help to mitigate nitrogen robbery and maintain soil fertility.

Reference: Haynes, R.J., 2000. Labile organic matter as an indicator of organic matter quality in arable and pastoral soils in New Zealand. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 32(2), pp.211-219.

Nitrogen tie-up, also known as nitrogen immobilization, refers to a temporary reduction in the availability of soil nitrogen due to microbial activity that utilizes nitrogen for breaking down high-carbon organic matter. This can lead to nitrogen deficiency in plants until the organic matter decomposes.

Reference: Hartman, W.H. and Richardson, C.J., 2013. Differential nutrient limitation of soil microbial biomass and metabolic quotients (qCO2): is there a biological stoichiometry of soil microbes?. PloS one, 8(7), p.e57127.

Non-cash crops, also called subsidiary (as in supporting) crops, are crop species that are grown for reasons other than generating a cash income, i.e., those grown for profit. There are many reasons for growing non-cash crops, many with specific names, for example: Cover crops are grown to protect (cover) the soil from weather (wind, rain) and the sun. They are also grown to improve soil health and increase soil organic matter. Green manures are legumes based mixtures grown to fix atmospheric nitrogen to increase soil nitrogen. '

Living mulches are low growing species than protect the soil, suppress weeds and often fix nitrogen, grown underneath taller crops, both annuals (wheat, maize) and perennials, (grapes, apples). Other forms of non-cash crops include catch crops, smother crops, trap crops, synergistic crops and biofumigation crops.

Nutrient analysis in soil and plants refers to the measurement of the quantity and availability of essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Nutrient analysis is important for understanding soil and plant health, and for developing effective nutrient management strategies. Nutrient analysis can be conducted using various methods, including soil and plant tissue testing, and can provide important information for optimizing crop productivity and reducing fertilizer waste and environmental pollution.

Reference: Gavlak, R., Horneck, D. and Miller, R.O., 2003. Plant, soil and water reference methods for the western region. WREP-125. US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service.

Organic matter in soil refers to the decomposed remains of plants and animals that have been incorporated into the soil. Organic matter is an important component of healthy soils as it contributes to soil structure, nutrient cycling, and water-holding capacity. Organic matter can also provide a food source for soil microorganisms and improve soil biodiversity.

Reference: Scharf, P.C., Kitchen, N.R., Sudduth, K.A. and Davis, J.G., 2005. Managing soil organic matter with cover crops in row crop systems. Soil and Tillage Research, 83(1), pp.29-40.

Overland water flow is the movement of water over the land surface in response to rainfall or other precipitation events. Overland flow can occur when soil becomes saturated or impermeable, leading to increased runoff and potential erosion, sedimentation, and flooding of nearby areas.

Reference: Dunne, T. and Leopold, L.B., 1978. Water in environmental planning. W. H. Freeman.

A penetrometer is a device used to measure soil compaction and resistance. It consists of a metal rod or cone that is pushed into the soil using hydraulic or manual force, and measures the force required to penetrate the soil. Penetrometers can provide valuable information on soil strength, structure, and compaction, which can be used to inform soil management practices and improve crop yields.

Reference: Tullberg, J.N. and Young, I.M., 2009. Estimating soil strength using penetrometry. In Soil strength and slope stability (pp. 1-26). Wiley-Blackwell.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds, such as sugars and starches. Photosynthesis occurs in specialized structures called chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll, a pigment that captures light energy. Through a series of chemical reactions, carbon dioxide is fixed and water is oxidized, releasing oxygen gas as a byproduct. Photosynthesis is essential for sustaining life on Earth, as it provides the basis for most food chains and releases oxygen into the atmosphere.

Reference: Campbell, N.A. and Reece, J.B., 2008. Biology (8th ed.). Pearson/Benjamin Cummings.

Plant nutrients are essential elements required by plants for growth, development, and reproduction. These include macronutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as micronutrients, such as iron, zinc, and copper. The availability of these nutrients in the soil can impact plant health and productivity.

Reference: Marschner, P., 2012. Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. Academic press.

Plant root exudates are organic compounds released by plant roots into the soil. These compounds can include sugars, organic acids, and enzymes, and can serve as a food source for soil microorganisms. Root exudates can also impact soil structure, nutrient cycling, and plant-microbe interactions.

See also Root exudates.

Reference: Badri, D.V. and Vivanco, J.M., 2009. Regulation and function of root exudates. Plant, Cell & Environment, 32(6), pp.666-681.

A pneumatic seeder is a machine used for planting seeds in the soil. It uses compressed air to propel seeds through a series of tubes and distribute them evenly across a field. Pneumatic seeders can be used for various crops and can help to improve planting accuracy and efficiency.

Reference: Kadolph, S.J., 2013. Textiles (12th ed.). Pearson Education.

Soil porosity refers to the volume of pore space in soil, or the space between soil particles that is not occupied by solids. Soil porosity can impact soil water-holding capacity, nutrient availability, and air exchange, and is influenced by factors such as soil structure, texture, and compaction.

Reference: Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R., 2008. The nature and properties of soils. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Predatory organisms in crop production are natural enemies such as insects or animals that hunt, kill, and feed on pest species, contributing to biological pest control and reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

Reference: Van Emden, H. F., & Harrington, R. (2017). Aphids as crop pests. CABI.

A regenerative mindset is an approach to life and decision-making that prioritizes the regeneration of natural systems and resources. It involves recognizing the interdependence of human and ecological health, valuing diversity and resilience, and taking a long-term and holistic view of sustainability.

Reference: Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin III, F.S., Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M., Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J. and Nykvist, B., 2009. Planetary boundaries: exploring the safe operating space for humanity. Ecology and Society, 14(2).

Relay cropping is a farming practice in which a second crop is planted into an existing crop before it is harvested or removed. This can help to maximize land use and crop productivity, and can also provide benefits such as reduced soil erosion and improved soil health.

Reference: Teasdale, J.R., Abdul-Baki, A.A. and Kremer, R.J., 1991. Relay cropping as an alternative to methyl bromide for weed control in cucumber. HortScience, 26(2), pp.161-163.

The rhizosphere is the soil zone surrounding plant roots, teeming with microbial life and enriched with organic matter from root exudates. It plays a vital role in nutrient cycling, plant-microbe interactions, and soil health.

Reference: Lynch, J.M. (1990). The Rhizosphere. Wiley.

A roller crimper is a machine used in regenerative farming to terminate cover crops by crimping or breaking their stems. This helps to create a mulch layer that suppresses weeds, conserves moisture, and improves soil health by adding organic matter and promoting microbial activity.

Reference: Sarrantonio, M., 2009. Northeast cover crop handbook. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service.

Root exudation is the process by which water, atmospheric carbon dioxide and sunlight are transformed by photosynthesis into simple sugars, lipids and proteins – carbon containing compounds which are soluble in liquid water. These are then transported down the plants phloem into the roots and are exudated (pushed out) into the soil. The root exudates feed a highly diverse range of microorganisms that in turn help the plant obtain nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorous) and protect it from harmful organisms. The soil microbes, notably mycorrhizal fungi, also turn some of the exudates into soil organic matter, particularly ‘mineral associated organic matter’ (MAOM) which is where the organic matter is put inside clay and silt particles.

See also Plant root exudates.

The rotation effect in farming refers to the benefits that can arise from alternating crops in a field over time. Crop rotations can help to improve soil health, reduce disease and pest pressure, and increase crop productivity by providing different nutrient and moisture requirements for different crops.

Reference: Huggins, D.R. and Reganold, J.P., 2008. No-till: the quiet revolution. Scientific American, 298(5), pp.70-77.

The slake test is a laboratory test used to assess soil aggregate stability. Soil aggregates are immersed in water and then agitated to simulate the effects of rainfall. The degree of aggregate breakdown can provide information on soil erosion potential and soil organic matter content.

Reference: Dexter, A.R., 1988. Advances in characterization of soil structure. Soil and Tillage Research, 11(3-4), pp.199-238.

A smother crop is a plant species that is used to suppress the growth of weeds or other unwanted vegetation. Smother crops can help to improve soil health and fertility by adding organic matter, reducing soil erosion, and improving water retention.

Reference: Liebman, M. and Sundberg, D.N., 2006. Green manure practices and their effects on pest and beneficial organisms. In Multifunctional agriculture (pp. 171-204). Springer, Dordrecht.

Soil armour refers to a protective cover on the soil surface, such as crop residues or mulch, that helps to prevent erosion by shielding the soil from the impact of rainfall, wind, or other erosive forces.

Reference: Dabney, S.M., Delgado, J.A. and Reeves III, D.W., 2001. Using winter cover crops to improve soil quality and water quality. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 32(7-8), pp.1221-1250.

Soil carbon refers to the amount of organic carbon stored in soil. It is a critical component of soil health and fertility, and plays a key role in regulating global carbon cycles and mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration.

Reference: Paustian, K., Lehmann, J., Ogle, S., Reay, D., Robertson, G.P. and Smith, P., 2016. Climate-smart soils. Nature, 532(7597), pp.49-57.

Soil density refers to the mass of soil per unit volume. It can be used as an indicator of soil compaction, which can affect plant growth and soil health by reducing water and nutrient availability and limiting soil aeration.

Reference: Blume, H.P., 2002. Basic principles of soil science. Elsevier.

The soil food web is a complex network of interacting organisms in soil, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, insects, and larger soil fauna. It is critical for soil health and nutrient cycling, and can influence plant growth and productivity.

Reference: Ingham, E.R., 2001. The soil biology primer. Soil and Water Conservation Society.

Soil health has many definitions due to the different viewpoint of people making the definition. In regenerative agriculture where caring for the soil is a key focus, it can be defined as ‘the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals, and humans’. The key in this definition is it views soil as a living ecosystem, i.e., soil is a living thing in its own right, not an inert substrate. Soil health can also be divided into physical, chemical and biological / ecological healths. Physical health refers to the soil structure, if it is well aggregated (healthy) or compacted (unhealthy).

Chemical soil health refers to the levels of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous and pH. Biological and ecological soil health refers to how well the living things in soil that make up the soil ecosystem are functioning.

Soil microbial biomass refers to the total mass of microorganisms in a given amount of soil. These microorganisms play critical roles in soil health, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem functioning, and can serve as indicators of soil quality and fertility.

Reference: Anderson, T.H. and Domsch, K.H., 2011. Soil microbial biomass: the eco-physiological approach. Springer Science & Business Media.

The soil microbiome refers to the diverse community of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, archaea, and viruses, that inhabit soil. The soil microbiome plays critical roles in soil health, nutrient cycling, and ecosystem functioning, and can influence plant growth and productivity.

Reference: van der Heijden, M.G., Bardgett, R.D. and van Straalen, N.M., 2008. The unseen majority: soil microbes as drivers of plant diversity and productivity in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecology letters, 11(3), pp.296-310.

Soil moisture refers to the amount of water held in soil. It is critical for plant growth and productivity, and can influence soil structure, nutrient availability, and microbial activity. Soil moisture can be affected by factors such as precipitation, temperature, and soil texture.

Reference: Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R., 2008. The nature and properties of soils. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Soil structure is how the sand, silt and clay particles are aggregated (joined) together to form crumb like aggregates. A well aggregated soil is like a sponge, it should consist of lots of holes of many sizes surrounded by aggregates. A poorly aggrigated soil (i.e., compacted / dense) will have few if any holes and show little or no signs of aggregates, and look similar to a solid brick.

Solubilise, in the context of soil health, refers to the process in which microorganisms break down and convert insoluble nutrients in the soil into soluble forms that can be easily taken up by plants. This enhances nutrient availability, promotes plant growth, and improves overall soil fertility.

Reference: Marschner, P., 2012. Marschner's mineral nutrition of higher plants. Academic press.

Soluble carbohydrates are simple sugars and other carbohydrates that are dissolved in soil water or plant sap. They can serve as a source of energy for soil microorganisms and plants, and can influence soil structure and nutrient cycling.

Reference: Lal, R., 2015. Soil health and sustainability: managing the biotic component of soil quality. Soil health and sustainability, pp.75-95.

Sorbed refers to the attachment of molecules or ions to solid surfaces in soil or other materials. Sorption can affect the movement and availability of nutrients and contaminants, and is influenced by factors such as soil texture, organic matter content, and pH.

Reference: Sparks, D.L., 2003. Environmental soil chemistry. Elsevier.

Sowing green is a regenerative farming practice that involves planting cash crops directly into a standing cover crop, rather than terminating the cover crop first. This can help to improve soil health and productivity by enhancing nutrient cycling, reducing soil erosion, and increasing organic matter.

Reference: Sullivan, P., Fuerst, P. and Andrews, S., 2017. The soil will save us: How scientists, farmers, and foodies are healing the soil to save the planet. Rodale Books.

A spade test is a simple field test used to assess soil structure and porosity. It involves digging a hole with a spade and examining the soil profile for visual indicators of compaction, such as hard layers or poor root development.

Reference: Ball, B.C., 2013. Soil structure and greenhouse gas emissions: a synthesis of 20 years of experimentation. European Journal of Soil Science, 64(3), pp.357-373.

A spring tine weeder is a type of mechanical weeding implement used in agriculture. It consists of a set of flexible tines that are dragged through the soil to uproot weeds without disturbing the soil surface, helping to reduce soil erosion and improve soil health.

Reference: Bàrberi, P. and Mazzoncini, M., 2001. Review: Agronomic and environmental implications of weed seedbank dynamics. In Weed management in agroecosystems: ecological approaches (pp. 149-172). CRC Press.

Subsidiary crops is another name for non-cash crops.

Symbiosis refers to the mutually beneficial relationships between different organisms, such as plants and soil microorganisms, that can help to improve soil health, nutrient cycling, and plant growth. These relationships are essential for the functioning of agroecosystems and can enhance ecosystem resilience and productivity.

Reference: Altieri, M.A. and Nicholls, C.I., 2017. Agroecology and the design of climate change-resilient farming systems. Agronomy, 7(1), p.21.

A synergistic crop is a combination of plant species that are grown together in a way that promotes beneficial interactions and enhances overall productivity and ecosystem services. Synergistic cropping can help to improve soil health, nutrient cycling, and biodiversity, while reducing pest and disease pressure.

Reference: Li, L., Sun, J., Zhang, F. and Li, X., 2016. Science-based crop breeding for sustainable agriculture. In Sustainable agriculture (pp. 61-85). Springer, Cham.

Thatch, in pasture management, is the layer of dead plant material that accumulates between live vegetation and the soil. Excessive thatch can hinder water infiltration, nutrient cycling, and plant growth.

Reference: Johnson, C.R., et al. Grazing management principles and practices. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Service.

Trample, in grazing management, refers to the physical pressure exerted by livestock on vegetation and the soil surface as they walk or trample through an area. Trampling can lead to plant damage, soil compaction, and alteration of soil structure and nutrient cycling.

Reference: Holechek, J.L., Pieper, R.D. and Herbel, C.H., 2001. Range management: principles and practices. Prentice Hall.

A trap crop is a plant species that is used to attract and trap pest insects, thereby reducing pest pressure on nearby cash crops. Trap crops can help to improve pest management in agriculture, while reducing the need for pesticides and enhancing biodiversity.

Reference: Mukherjee, A. and Speight, M.R., 2019. Trap cropping in pest management. CAB Reviews, 14(1), p.022.

Undersowing is a regenerative farming practice that involves planting a cover crop between rows of a cash crop, typically during the early stages of cash crop development. This can help to improve soil health, nutrient cycling, and weed suppression, while enhancing overall ecosystem services and productivity.

Reference: Hunt, S.L. and Johnson-Maynard, J.L., 2018. Handbook of regenerative landscape design. CRC Press.

Vegetative growth in farming refers to the period when plants primarily develop leaves, stems, and roots, essential for crop establishment and biomass accumulation before flowering. It ensures optimal photosynthesis and nutrient uptake.

Reference: Salisbury, F.B., & Ross, C.W. (1992). Plant physiology (4th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing.

Visual soil assessment is a field-based method for assessing soil health and quality by observing and interpreting soil characteristics such as colour, structure, and texture. It can help to identify soil problems and prioritize management strategies for improving soil health.

Reference: Gómez, J.A., Guzmán, G., Giráldez, J.V. and Fereres, E., 2018. Visual soil assessment: a review of its use in Spain. Geoderma Regional, 15, e00183.

Water holding capacity in soil refers to the ability of soil to retain water that is available to plants. It is determined by the texture, structure, and organic matter content of soil, and can influence plant growth and productivity, nutrient availability, and microbial activity.

Reference: Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R., 2008. The nature and properties of soils. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Water infiltration rate is the speed at which water enters into the soil surface. It is influenced by soil texture, structure, and compaction, and can affect plant growth and productivity, nutrient cycling, and soil erosion.

Reference: Lal, R., 2001. Soil degradation by erosion. Land degradation and development, 12(6), pp.519-539.

In regenerative farming, weeds are generally defined as plants that are growing in a location where they are not wanted, rather than as inherently undesirable or problematic. They can serve as indicators of soil health and can provide benefits such as nutrient cycling and biodiversity.

Reference: Mortensen, D.A., Egan, J.F., Maxwell, B.D., Ryan, M.R. and Smith, R.G., 2012. Navigating a critical juncture for sustainable weed management. BioScience, 62(1), pp.75-84.